Andragogy

In 1968, Malcolm Knowles proposed “a new label and a new technology”
of adult learning to distinguish it from preadult schooling (p. 351). The
ANDRAGOGY AND SELF-DIRECTED LEARNING 5 European concept of andragogy, which he defined as “the art and science of helping adults learn,” was contrasted with pedagogy, the art and science of helping children learn (Knowles, 1980, p. 43). Andragogy became a rallying
point for those trying to define the field of adult education as separatefrom other areas of education.

The five assumptions underlying andragogy describe the adult learner as someone who (1) has an independent self-concept and who can direct his or her own learning, (2) has accumulated a reservoir of life experiences that is a rich resource for learning, (3) has learning needs closely related to changing social roles, (4) is problem-centered and interested in immediate application
of knowledge, and (5) is motivated to learn by internal rather than external factors. From these assumptions, Knowles proposed a program planning model for designing, implementing, and evaluating educational experiences with adults. For example, with regard to the first assumption
that as adults mature they become more independent and self-directing,

Knowles suggested that the classroom climate should be one of “adultness,” both physically and psychologically. In an “adult” classroom, adults “feel accepted, respected, and supported”; further, there exists “a spirit of mutuality between teachers and students as joint inquirers” (1980, p. 47). And because adults manage other aspects of their lives, they are capable of directing, or at least assisting in planning, their own learning.

The 1970s and early 1980s witnessed much writing, debate, and discussion about the validity of andragogy as a theory of adult learning. At first the main point of contention was whether andragogy could be considered a “theory” of adult learning. Davenport and Davenport (1985, p. 157), in their chronicle of the debate, note that andragogy has been classified “as a
theory of adult education, theory of adult learning, theory of technology of adult learning, method of adult education, technique of adult education, and a set of assumptions.” Hartree (1984) questioned whether there was a theory at all, suggesting that perhaps these were just principles of good practice, or descriptions of “what the adult learner should be like” (p. 205).

Knowles himself came to concur that andragogy is less a theory of adult learning than “a model of assumptions about learning or a conceptual framework that serves as a basis for an emergent theory” (1989, p. 112). The second area of criticism, ongoing to this day, is the extent to which
the assumptions are characteristic of adult learners only. Some adults are highly dependent on a teacher for structure, while some children are independent, self-directed learners. The same is true for motivation; adults may be externally motivated to learn, as in attending training sessions to keep their job, for example, while children may be motivated by curiosity or the internal pleasure of learning. Even the most obvious assumption that adults have more and deeper life experiences may or may not function positively in a learning situation.

Indeed, certain life experiences can act as barriers to learning (Merriam, Mott,
and Lee, 1996). Further, children in certain situations may have a range of
experiences qualitatively richer than some adults (Hanson, 1996)