Sunday, February 20, 2011

Andragogy

In 1968, Malcolm Knowles proposed “a new label and a new technology”
of adult learning to distinguish it from preadult schooling (p. 351). The
ANDRAGOGY AND SELF-DIRECTED LEARNING 5 European concept of andragogy, which he defined as “the art and science of helping adults learn,” was contrasted with pedagogy, the art and science of helping children learn (Knowles, 1980, p. 43). Andragogy became a rallying
point for those trying to define the field of adult education as separatefrom other areas of education.

The five assumptions underlying andragogy describe the adult learner as someone who (1) has an independent self-concept and who can direct his or her own learning, (2) has accumulated a reservoir of life experiences that is a rich resource for learning, (3) has learning needs closely related to changing social roles, (4) is problem-centered and interested in immediate application
of knowledge, and (5) is motivated to learn by internal rather than external factors. From these assumptions, Knowles proposed a program planning model for designing, implementing, and evaluating educational experiences with adults. For example, with regard to the first assumption
that as adults mature they become more independent and self-directing,

Knowles suggested that the classroom climate should be one of “adultness,” both physically and psychologically. In an “adult” classroom, adults “feel accepted, respected, and supported”; further, there exists “a spirit of mutuality between teachers and students as joint inquirers” (1980, p. 47). And because adults manage other aspects of their lives, they are capable of directing, or at least assisting in planning, their own learning.

The 1970s and early 1980s witnessed much writing, debate, and discussion about the validity of andragogy as a theory of adult learning. At first the main point of contention was whether andragogy could be considered a “theory” of adult learning. Davenport and Davenport (1985, p. 157), in their chronicle of the debate, note that andragogy has been classified “as a
theory of adult education, theory of adult learning, theory of technology of adult learning, method of adult education, technique of adult education, and a set of assumptions.” Hartree (1984) questioned whether there was a theory at all, suggesting that perhaps these were just principles of good practice, or descriptions of “what the adult learner should be like” (p. 205).

Knowles himself came to concur that andragogy is less a theory of adult learning than “a model of assumptions about learning or a conceptual framework that serves as a basis for an emergent theory” (1989, p. 112). The second area of criticism, ongoing to this day, is the extent to which
the assumptions are characteristic of adult learners only. Some adults are highly dependent on a teacher for structure, while some children are independent, self-directed learners. The same is true for motivation; adults may be externally motivated to learn, as in attending training sessions to keep their job, for example, while children may be motivated by curiosity or the internal pleasure of learning. Even the most obvious assumption that adults have more and deeper life experiences may or may not function positively in a learning situation.

Indeed, certain life experiences can act as barriers to learning (Merriam, Mott,
and Lee, 1996). Further, children in certain situations may have a range of
experiences qualitatively richer than some adults (Hanson, 1996)

Thursday, February 17, 2011

Adult Learning Theory

Adult Learning Theory


Pathways Home

Speck (1996) notes that the following important points of adult learning theory should be considered when professional development activities are designed for educators:

* "Adults will commit to learning when the goals and objectives are considered realistic and important to them. Application in the 'real world' is important and relevant to the adult learner's personal and professional needs.

* Adults want to be the origin of their own learning and will resist learning activities they believe are an attack on their competence. Thus, professional development needs to give participants some control over the what, who, how, why, when, and where of their learning.

* Adult learners need to see that the professional development learning and their day-to-day activities are related and relevant.

* Adult learners need direct, concrete experiences in which they apply the learning in real work.

* Adult learning has ego involved. Professional development must be structured to provide support from peers and to reduce the fear of judgment during learning.

* Adults need to receive feedback on how they are doing and the results of their efforts. Opportunities must be built into professional development activities that allow the learner to practice the learning and receive structured, helpful feedback.

* Adults need to participate in small-group activities during the learning to move them beyond understanding to application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. Small-group activities provide an opportunity to share, reflect, and generalize their learning experiences.

* Adult learners come to learning with a wide range of previous experiences, knowledge, self-direction, interests, and competencies. This diversity must be accommodated in the professional development planning.

* Transfer of learning for adults is not automatic and must be facilitated. Coaching and other kinds of follow-up support are needed to help adult learners transfer learning into daily practice so that it is sustained." (pp. 36-37)

Wednesday, February 16, 2011

Bloom's Taxonomy - Cognitive, Psychomotor, Affective Domains

SLOs, Bloom’s Taxonomy, Cognitive, Psychomotor,
and Affective Domains
.

Bloom (1948) developed classifications of intellectual behavior and learning in order to identify and measure progressively sophisticated learning. College faculty members are hired because of their discipline expertise and are sometimes unfamiliar with important pedagogical theories that contribute to effective learning. Bloom's taxonomy is especially important in higher education where outcomes need to address the student ability to use information, not just recall and regurgitate concepts. Lower levels of learning are easier to assess but do not adequately display what the student can DO with the knowledge. Refer to the next page for a diagram of Bloom's increasing levels of complex learning.

However, learning is not a purely cognitive function; learning occurs differently when it entails performing a skill or re-evaluating behavior. Three domains of learning are recognized:

· Cognitive domain defining knowledge classification. See the following page for a table describing increasing complexity in cognitive learning. Each level has examples of verbs that could be used in writing an SLO at this level. These verbs are not magic or mandatory, our faculty found them helpful, so we used a variety of models and created our own.

· Psychomotor domain (Gronlund, 1970; Harrow, 1972; Simpson, 1972) defining physical skills or tasks classification. Check out the psychomotor table on the following page.

· Affective domain (Krathwhol, Bloom, and Masia, 1964) defining behaviors that correspond to attitudes and values. Please refer to the affective table. Affective outcomes tend to be the hardest to articulate initially and often appear difficult to assess at first glance. However, cognitive outcomes often represent the outcomes most closely related to deeper thinking and life-long learning, as well as the outcomes we value most.

NOTE: Student learning outcomes should address relevant outcomes for each of these domains but must be appropriate to the course.

Think about possible means of assessing the outcomes. The essence of student learning outcomes lies in focusing on the results you want from your course rather than on what you will cover in the course. Ask yourself how you will know when you have accomplished those outcomes

Cognitive Domain

Learning Outcomes Related To Knowledge

Knowledge

Comprehension

Application

Analysis

Synthesis

Evaluation

Student remembers or
recognizes information or specifics as communicated with little personal assimilation.

Student grasps the meaning behind the information and interprets, translates,
or comprehends the
information.

Student uses information to relate and apply it to a new situation with minimal instructor input.

Student discriminates,
organizes, and scrutinizes
assumptions in an attempt to identify evidence for a conclusion.

Student creatively applies knowledge and analysis to integrate concepts or construct an overall theory.

Student judges or evaluates information based upon standards and criteria, values and opinions.

Cite

Label
List

Enumerate

Identify

Imitate

Match

Name

Quote

Recall

Reproduce

State

Write

Convert

Define

Describe

Discuss

Estimate

Explain

Generalize

Identify

Illustrate

Locate
Paraphrase

Restate
Summarize

Apply

Chart
Compute
Demonstrate

Determine

Dramatize

Establish

Make

Manipulate

Prepare

Project
Solve
Use

Analyze
Compare
Contrast
Correlate

Diagram

Dissect

Differentiate

Distinguish

Infer

Investigate

Limit

Outline

Separate

Assemble

Create

Construct
Design

Develop

Formulate

Generate
Hypothesize

Initiate
Invent

Modify

Reframe

Synthesize

Access

Appraise

Conclude

Critique

Decide

Defend

Diagnose

Evaluate

Judge

Justify
Rank

Recommend
Support


Psychomotor Domain

Learning Outcomes Related To Skills

Observe

Model

Recognize Standards

Correct

Apply

Coach

Students translate sensory input into physical tasks or activities.

Students are able to replicate a fundamental skill or task.

Students recognize standards or criteria important to perform a skill or task correctly.

Students use standards to evaluate their own performances and make corrections.

Students apply this skill to real life situations.

Students are able to instruct or train others to perform this skill in other situations.

Hear

Identify

Observe

See

Smell

Taste

Touch

Watch

*Usually no outcomes or objectives written at this level.

Attempt

Copy

Follow

Imitate

Mimic

Model

Reenact

Repeat

Reproduce

Show

Try

Check

Detect

Discriminate

Differentiate

Distinguish

Notice

Perceive

Recognize

Select

Adapt

Adjust

Alter

Change

Correct

Customize

Develop

Improve

Manipulate

Modify

Practice

Revise

Build

Compose

Construct

Create

Design

Originate

Produce

Demonstrate

Exhibit

Illustrate

Instruct

Teach

Train


Affective Domain

Learning Outcomes Related To Attitudes, Behaviors, and Values

Receiving

Responding

Valuing

Organizing

Characterizing

Students become aware of an attitude, behavior, or value.

Students exhibit a reaction or change as a result of exposure to an attitude, behavior, or value.

Students recognize value and display this through involvement or commitment.

Students determine a new value or behavior as important or a priority.

Students integrate consistent behavior as a naturalized value in spite of discomfort or cost. The value is recognized as a part of the person’s character.

Accept

Attend

Describe

Explain

Locate

Observe

Realize

Receive

Recognize

Behave

Comply

Cooperate

Discuss

Examine

Follow

Model

Present

Respond

Show

Studies

Accept

Adapt

Balance

Choose

Differentiate

Defend

Influence

Prefer

Recognize

Seek

Value

Adapt

Adjust

Alter

Change

Customize

Develop

Improve

Manipulate

Modify

Practice

Revise

Authenticate

Characterize

Defend

Display

Embody

Habituate

Internalize

Produce

Represent

Validate

Verify